RHS US History: January 2012

Review US History Blais

Reconstruction

I. War time activities
A. U.S. Government and private organizations deal with emancipation during the war

By 1863, U.S. government forced to deal with emancipation--as Union armies occupied more and more of the South, thousands of slaves sought their freedom
not all slaves immediately moved to seek freedom--most waited until they believed it was safe
many remained behind in slavery because of their families
Although government worked to abolish slavery, it never developed any consistent plan for dealing with the large number of freedpersons

part of the problem lay in question of which part of the government had control--army or treasury
adding to the confusion was a mix of businessmen, missionary groups, and freedman's societies from the North who came to the South
disagreements (between freedpersons and government officials, and between different groups in the North) over what freedom meant further compounded the problem

Responses to freed persons

Three main groups trying to deal with freed persons

Union Army
U.S. Treasury Department agents
private businessmen from the North who had gotten leases to farm land seized from southerners

these groups concerned most with getting most production out of freed persons (and in case of U.S. Army, minimizing interference to its operations)

Type of work freed persons did often resembled what they did during slavery--many still labored on plantations

The blacks were free and received pay, but little else was different--frequently what little pay they had earned was retained to pay for food, clothing, medical hep, and support for their families

Labor was forced to a large degree

Labor was labeled a public duty
Idleness and vagrancy became crimes
Military government enforced the rules requiring blacks to work
Making a profit was key issue to those in control, either in government or private concerns--cotton was big money
Not all in government or private industry were solely concerned with profit

some paid good wages for work
others attempted to provide education for the free African-Americans

Paternalistic treatment of blacks

most northerners treated free blacks with a paternalistic attitude--often treating like children
especially true behind the lines, where often only remaining freed persons were women, children, aged, and infirm

Wartime plans for bringing the Confederate states back into the Union

Lincoln's 10% plan

formally titled the Proclamation of Amnest and Reconstruction (issued Dec. 1863)
details

under this plan a minority of voters (equal to at least 10 % of those who had cast votes in the election of 1860) had to take oath of allegiance to U.S. and accept emancipation
this minority could then create a loyal state government
all Confederate govt. officials and military officers would be excluded unless they received a pardon from the president
plan also excluded African-Americans from voting

purpose

get southern Unionists to try and bring their states back into the United States--would hurt the Confederate war effort ** key point **
also help build a base for Republican party in South

Wade-Davis bill

Radical Republicans unhappy with Lincoln's 10% plan
two Radical Republicans, Senator Benjamin Wade of Ohio and Congressman Henry Davis of Maryland, sponsor an alternative plan for Reconstruction
bill passed by Congress July 1864
details

after at least half the eligible voters took the oath of allegiance, they could elect delegates to a form a new state constitution that repealed secession and abolished secession
catch--to qualify as a voter or delegate, a southerner would have to take a second, "ironclad" oath, said voter had never voluntarily supported the Confederacy
black suffrage not considered in Wade-Davis bill

result--Lincoln pocket vetoes

By end of Civil War, there was NO true post-war plan for reconstruction--even though Lincoln had hinted of some changes in his plans during speeches in early 1865
Lincoln assassinated, Andrew Johnson steps into office
Two major problems facing U.S. government

under what conditions would former Confederate state be allowed back into the Union
determining what emancipation meant

II. Emancipation

13th Amendment (ratified in 1865)--end of slavery (Mississippi ratified 1994)
The meaning of freedom

African-Americans in South get their freedom during a period of extreme economic hardship in their region
First steps in finding freedom

family -- finding family members, marriage
where to live -- rural areas or cities
how will family make a living?

purchase their own farm
work as farm laborer
tenant farm
sharecrop

Who in family will work? Issue of women and children working
Assistance to freedpersons

Army -- only brief time following the war
Freedman's Bureau

food and clothing
legal help with contracts
medical care
education

Northern missionary societies
African-American churches

begin as southern blacks decide to create their own places to worship
provide a key leadership role in African-American community--both in politics and in helping the newly freed people become educated

Southern whites respond to emancipation

white leaders want to maintain control of the labor of the African-Americans
"black codes" passed quickly

throughout the fall of 1865 and on into 1866, southern state legislatures passed a series of laws designed to reestablish the planters' control over black workers
the backbone of all these codes were laws forbidding vagrancy--being unemployed. If person found to be a vagrant, then would face a fine or imprisonment. Person paying fine could get labor of prisoner
most of the black codes had clauses that restricted freedom of movement for African Americans
some codes forbade African-Americans from owning or renting land, some required freedpersons to take jobs only as farm laborers or domestic servants
many codes contained provisions that also made it a crime for blacks to break a contract, assemble in large numbers, or act in an insulting manner toward a white (defined very broadly)

Southern whites put many former Confederate leaders back into politics even though the law forbids them from doing so. Northern congressmen refuse to seat those returned to Congress
President Andrew Johnson's policy toward the South was to leave things as they were.
Freedmen's Bureau act and Civil Rights act of 1866

Congress passes two acts in the spring of 1866 to change the course of Reconstruction -- Freedmen's bureau Act and Civil Rights Act
Johnson vetoes both
Congress overrides veto on Civil Rights Act

Elections of 1866 give Radical Republicans control of Congress
Congress immediately passes a series of acts in early 1867 to enforce their vision of reconstruction

South divided into 5 military districts
Makes ratification of 14^th amendment prerequisite for regaining admission

III. Radical Reconstruction

State governments

during the first years after the Civil War, southern states faced the task of rebuilding their state and local governments
they did so with most established leaders disenfranchised
war-torn economies--which meant raising money for government would be difficult
had to deal with tensions caused by emancipation--as the freedpersons fought to gain a place in the political process
it was at the state and local level that Reconstruction caused so much controversy in the South

Republican Rule

generally, state constitutional conventions established a series of democratic changes

gave every adult male right to vote
permitted blacks to sue and testify in courts
however, did not establish any major economic changes

public works projects

public schools (segregated)
railroads, roads, and bridges
institutions for disabled (insane, deaf, blind, orphans)
cost of these programs expensive

high taxes, big government debt
sometimes programs badly mismanaged, causing loss of thousands of dollars
taxpayer revolt against programs
somewhat the most revolutionary aspect of Reconstruction (transfer of property through taxation)

Corruption

opponents of Republican measures labelled the whole process as corrupt
there was some corruption among officials--white and black, Republican and Democrat
most monetary problems though came through ineptitude

Struggle over control of Reconstruction

14th Amendment

had been adopted by Congress in 1866, but not yet ratified
Provisions

all persons born or naturalized in U.S. were citizens (including blacks) and no state could abridge their rights without due process of the law or deny them equal protection under the law
if a state denied suffrage to any male citizen, then its representation in Congress would be reduced proportionally
disqualified from national and state government all prewar officeholders who supported the Confederacy (Congress could overturn this by 2/3d's vote)
repudiated all Confederate war debts
specifically gave Congress power to enforce the Amendment (first time)

Readmission of southern states into the Union was premised on their ratifying this amendment
Ratified in July 1868

Impeachment crisis Elections of 1866

IV. Congressional Reconstruction

Moderate and Radical Republicans control

Congressional acts in 1867

Reconstruction Act of 1867

invalidated the states government created under Johnson (except Tennessee)
creation of 5 temporary military districts
provided that voters would write new state constitutions guaranteeing black suffrage (voters included blacks and whites not barred from voting)
blacks had to enfranchised before a state could be readmitted to Union

Refinanced the Freedmen's Bureau

helped provide relief--food and medicine (help was limited)
protection from unfair contracts
schools

Congress still had to deal with problem of suffrage and equal treatment in the courts (blacks could still not vote in most states--including those in the North)
15th Amendment

passed by Congress in Feb. 1869
prohibited a state from denying suffrage on basis of race, color, or previous condition of servitude (Congress also gave itself power to enforce)
Four states which had not yet been readmitted to Union (including Georgia) were required to ratify before readmission
Ratified in 1870
Looked good--but big loopholes

did not provide guarantees for blacks to hold office
did not prohibit state from restricting suffrage on other grounds--literacy, property holding, etc.
did not provide suffrage for women

State governments

existing governments dismantled
onset of Republican party in the South
Southern blacks formed a coalition with "carpetbaggers" and "scalawags" to form the Republican part

carpetbagger--politicians who come from North (many white southerners saw them as only looking for wealth and power)
scalawag--southern whites who supported Republicans--usually former Unionists during war (seen as poor, gullible fools by upper crust whites)
uneducated mobs of African Americans (in the white view)

The Republican party held the majority in the early years of Congressional Reconstruction

disenfrancisement of 15% of the whites and 700,000 free black males gave them an overall majority of voters (and control in 5 states)
majority numbers did not reflect problems

racial tensions between blacks and whites
contradictory goals

whites who had opposed plantation rule wanted to improve their economic standing
blacks wanted land, political and legal equality, and schools
even among blacks, some division

elite leaders--political power
common blacks--land

Attacks against Reconstruction

Political attacks

Conservatives appeal to whites

on basis of money
on basis of race
gradually gained support among whites during late 1860s

Violence

Vigilante groups--many different types (Redshirts, Klan, etc.)

formed as social club in Pulaski, Tennessee in 1866 (costumes, secret passwords, etc.)--Nathan Bedford Forrest early leader
when black suffrage and white disenfranchisement became a reality in 1868, Klan turned to violence
Klan targets included

black voters
white Republicans
Union League leaders
Freedmen's Bureau agents

Congressional response

Enforcement acts (1870-71), includes the KKK Act

outlawed klan violence
allowed use of federal troops and courts to arrest and prosecute Klan members
suspended writ of habeas corpus
supervised elections in the South

By 1872, Klan activity had come to an end in the South--reason, whites had regained political control

V. North loses interest in Reconstruction

Grant's presidency

war hero, elected in 1868
proved a weak president, who delegated much authority to his subordinates
Grant's subordinates got caught in numerous scandals

first term of office

Grant's brother-in-law joins attempt to corner gold market, which goes bust, losing thousands
His Vice-President gets caught in Credit Mobilier (a construction company) scandal, attempting to skim profits illegally from the Union Pacific Railroad (1871)

second term of office

despite scandal, Grant still popular and gets reelected in 1872

defeats Horace Greeley (editor of N.Y. Tribune) by a wide margin
Greeley had run as candidate backed by Democrats and Liberal Republicans (an offshoot of dissatisfied Republicans)

In 1875, Orville Babcock, Grant's personal secretary got caught taking bribes from whiskey distillers in return for allowing them to avoid paying liquor taxes
In 1876, Grant's secretary of war took bribes to sell positions as Indian agents in the west, positions that were very profitable to those who got them
Grant knew little about these scandals, and his integrity was never really questioned (although his intelligence was)

One historian has labelled this the "era of good stealings"

The northern economy

The northern economy had lurched forward in fits and starts during the years after the Civil War, with little real stability
Shrinking money supply

during war, government had issued greenbacks as currency
once war ended, questions arose as to whether they should remain in circulation
in 1869, these Greenbacks were withdrawn, and all wartime debts were to be paid in hard money (gold or silver coins)
this shrank the amount of money available, making it hard to pay credit debts, taxes, etc.

Panic of 1873

Jay Cooke, a major Philadelphia banker, had helped finance the construction of a number of railroads
When cost overruns meant a number of these lines went unfininshed, Cooke had millions of dollars of worthless bonds in his bank
it collapsed, setting of a major panic on the stock market and in the financial world (Collapse of Freedmen's Savings Bank)
Nation went into a six-year long depression
to help, the Treasury department issued a small amount of greenbacks ($26 mill.), but depression continued

Support for Reconstruction wanes

While North deals with scandals and economic problems, southerners urge the government to end Reconstruction
Northerners are tired of the wrangling and expense of maintaining the Reconstruction forces
Idealism of creating a nation where whites and blacks are treated equally (at least in politics and law) hard to keep going
Support for Reconstruction wanes in both the Congress and public
Still Congress manages to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1875--which attempted to enforce the provisions of the 14th and 15th amendments

Frontier West and New South

I. The West

Settling the West

New farms, new markets

Railroads change economy
New farm implements

Steel tipped plow
McCormick reapers

Community life

Lone individualism mostly a myth
People settled mostly around communities
Family and neighbors

Suffrage

Gets its first start in the west
Scarcity of women make them more valuable, thus given more power

II. New South

Transformation of southern economy

South's infrastructure destroyed during the Civil War

Roads, RR's, etc. are gone
Shortage of credit or banks
Weaknesses of education system

Rise of the New South economy

Sharecropping
Extractive industries
Textile mills

Northern control of the southern economy

Growth of Jim Crow segregation

Jim Crow a gradual development

did not happen overnight
postwar, not a pre-Civil War phenomenon
happened South and North (to a much lesser degree)

First signs--voting

Poll taxes and literacy tests
Exemptions--grandfather clauses

Schools and transportation

earliest school segregation cases from Mass. in 1850s (C.J. Lemeul Shaw--abolitionist--ruled in favor of "separate but equal facilities")
several other northern states adopted separate systems
long accepted rule that passengers on RR's could be segregated on reasonable grounds, so long as facilities substantially equal

women/men
smokers/non-smokers

Penn. passed law in 1867 that separated the races on RR (blacks sit in back of car)
Most states gradually began to implement laws mandating separate transportation facilities--primarily on intrastate vehicles at first--streetcars, local RRs, local boats and ferries
Official segregation of public schools began to grow during the 1870s and 1880s
by the mid-1890s, many states were beginning to get serious about official segregating the races

Different white views on race relations

Liberal -- strongest in 1880s

believed that abilities of African Americans had never been fully explored, their potential unknown
sought to assimilate blacks into mainstream American culture through education--compare with Booker T. Washington
never gained much of a following in the South

Radical

insisted that the black race had no place in the America of the future
held that emancipation and Reconstruction had sent the blacks spiraling downward into a state of savagery--slavery had been the only thing that had kept blacks civilized
radicals eagerly looked forward to the demise of the race in America
strongest in the late 1880s and 1890s

Radicals gained its mass following in the 1880s and 1890s because that was a period of economic depression during which poorer men were unable to support their families adequately--Feelings of failure were compensated for by rage against the blacks

Radicals viewed lynching as a means of controlling what they saw as the "black beast rapist"
Gov. Ben Tillman of S.C. and Thomas Dixon (The Klansman) were strongest proponents of this view

Conservative

advocated the control rather than the destruction of blacks based on a fundamental belief in the racial inferiority of African Americans
Conservatives kept alive the Southern ideal of the organic society, with its feudalistic roots of proper hierarchies in social relationships
For the organic society to function properly, each element must know its place, and the proper place for blacks was as subordinated laborers
by late 1890s, this had become the dominant view in the South

Plessy v. Ferguson (USSC, 1896)

passage of the Separate Car Act (1890) by the Louisiana legislature--required separate cars for different races on all trains carrying black and white passengers

challenged by Louisiana black leaders
Plessy's attorneys argued that the Fourteenth Amendment provided protection of all rights of citizens protected prior to the Civil War by either state or federal governments--in essence, their argument rested on a color-blind Constitution

Justice Henry Billings Brown wrote for the majority

easily concluded that the Louisiana separate car law constituted a reasonable exercise of the state's police power
He stated that the Fourteenth Amendment did not categorically prohibit states from establishing race distinctions in statutory law

Justice John Marshall Harlan provided the only dissent

a former slave holder from Kentucky
argued that the Reconstruction Amendments categorically outlawed race distinctions

Following Plessy decision, southern states moved quickly to cement the idea of official segregation in public places

Rise of second KKK in 1915

instability of times helped give boost to racism that was widespread in the U.S.
began in Stone Mountain, GA
influenced by release of Birth of a Nation
lasted until the late 1920s

Differing paths to African American power

While the years following the Compromise of 1877 witnessed increasing emphasis on economic development, self-help, racial solidarity, and race pride, the Reconstruction emphases on the franchise, political activity, and civil rights continued
Booker T. Washington--late 1880s-1910s

placed strong emphasis on gaining technical skills as way of gaining power and status
Industrial education among blacks had a long history before Booker T. Washington emerged as a figure of national stature. A generation before he founded Tuskegee, blacks advocated industrial education as part of a program of self-help and racial solidarity

W.E.B. DuBois (Souls of the Black Folk, 1903)

disputes ideas of Washington
argues blacks should fight for economic, political, and educational equality

Founding of the N.A.A.C.P.

1905, DuBois and other black critics of Washington start the Niagra Movement
1909, Oswald Garrison Villard and other white progressives join with members of the Niagra Movement in organizing the NAACP

organization rejects accomodationist stance
calls for full equality and end to racial discrimination
mainly a northern-based movement at first
seeks to change the laws

The Birth of Modern America Economic Developments

I. Introduction--From "island communities" to corporate liberalism

Societies in flux

American society, like those of other nations, constantly in flux, continuously changing
Changes that began in the North in the early 19th century, grew in strength and spread to the rest of the nation after the Civil War

Island communities

"America during the 19th century was a society of island communities"--Robert Wiebe

Weak communication severely restricted interaction among these islands
Education (formal and informal) inhibited specialization and accumulation of knowledge

Heart of American democracy was local autonomy
Controlling society was based on personal, informal ways

During latter part of 19th century, American began to turn away from the island communities to an urban-industrial life
system which ran the island communities could not handle this new life--people in the U.S. had to develop a new way of handling society
Corporate liberalism

By the end of World War I (1918), a new scheme was created for controlling American society
Urban-industrial lifestyle needed order to survive--an order based on regulations and hierarchies
This new scheme of creating order functioned by:

rules with impersonal sanctions
seeking continuity and predictability in the face of continuous change
giving far greater power to government--especially to various administrative agencies with flexible responses
encouraged centralization of authority

People were now identified more by their skill and occupation than their community
This new way of ordering the world came to be known as corporate liberalism

II. The Machine Age: Industrialization--1850s-1920

Change from agrarian to urban, industrial society
Technology, organization, and the quest for wealth

Railroads and telegraph

First large-scale industries
opening of Pennsylvania coalfields in 1840s made operation of steam trains possible on wide-scale basis
getting the full potential out of this new technology required unprecedented organizationl efforts in:

scheduling
bookkeeping--cost accounting
personnel management

organizational innovation came through the creation of administrative hierarchies which

hired men to supervise functional activities over a wide geographic area
and executives to monitor, coordinate, and evaluate the work of lower level managers
large numbers of salaried experts were needed to run these railroads

even with changes in organization, railroads in U.S. were by no means standardized at the end of the Civil War

standardization of railroads took place in a twenty year period following the war
the areas of standardization included:

track size
rate-setting
time keeping methods (standard time zones--mention resistance)

even after standardization took place, railroads still faced the problem of competition

cutthroat competition was keeping many railroads from making any profits, thus driving them into bankruptcy
often, managers of several railroads would run their lines to the same small towns, just so their competitors would not have an advantage (this proved very costly--often all roads lost)
some railroads began to join others to form cartels--to reduce competition by controlling rates and volume of traffic
the failure of so many railroads during the 1890s forced the adoption of centralized administrative structures for the railroads--frequently controlled by those outside the industry
still, overall success of railroad organizations was imitated by others in transportation and communications--steamships, streetcars, telegraph, and later, telephone companies

Railroads and telegraphs provided the fast, regular, and dependable transportation and communication essential to high-volume production and distribution

trains provided more direct communication than did other types of transportation and could do so in most any type of weather
telegraph provided almost instantaneous communication over long distances

Distribution

Next major group of industries to combine new organizational schemes with new technologies were distribution businesses--originally wholesalers, then retailers
distributors had to have fast transportation and communications to get goods from a large number of suppliers to a large number of buyers
first to do this were Marshall Field and A.T. Stewart, soon joined by John Wanamaker and Rowland Macy

they created department stores to sell a wide variety of merchandise
succeeded by maintaining high-volume, high-turnover flow of business by selling at low prices and low profit margins
Soon challenged by Montgomery Ward and Sears, Roebuck in 1890s--opening of mailorder firms

developed rigid system of timetables to fill orders
could process these orders from different departments
used RR's to ship

Manufacturing

last area to really take advantage of new organizational systems
had to wait for new technologies to mass produce, as well as all-weather transportation and organizational development
development of technology in form of continuous-process machines (turning out products automatically) or building of factories where materials flowed continuously from one stage of production to another allowed mass production

James Duke--cigarette rolling machines
Steel mills--automatic steel rollers

depression of the 1870s (beginning in 1873) turned managements attention from technology to management techniques (plants were underutilized during the period)--scientific management evolved during the period

Henry Metcalfe and especially Frederick Taylor develpoed of scientific management

they argued that costs and savings should be based on a standard time and output to be scientifically determined through detailed study of the work being done (time and motion studies)
humans become basically another piece of machinery to be fine tuned

Textile mills--technology without organization

Why and how do businesses become so large--Integration and birth of large-scale businesses

two types of integration

vertical
horizontal

the largest corporations that developed used one or both methods of integration to achieve large size
vertical integration allowed manufacturers to combine several parts together--supply, production, and distribution

some wanted own distribution systems to sell to the now wide-based market

James Duke--American Tobacco could now make many cigarettes, but who would buy

developed his own system of marketing
first to use heavy advertising to convince people they needed his products
Others included Pillsbury (flour), Campbell and Heinz (canned goods), Pond and Proctor and Gamble (soap), George Eastman (photography)

others had special needs to met in distribution

Armour and Swift--meatpacking (needed refrigated train cars and warehouses)
McCormick and John Deere (farm equipment), Remington, and NCR needed to provide special instructions for their customers on how to use equipment

still others needed steady stream of suppliers

Rockefeller and Standard Oil (needed oil for refineries, as well as pipelines and tank cars for distribution)
Carnegie Steel and other steel mills bought mines (coal and iron ore) to guarantee themselves raw materials)

horizontal integration (mergers) came about mainly as an attempt to reduce competition and introduce stability and certainty to prices and profits

cartels were informal, and broke down easily
mergers worked sometimes, but were frowned upon as being non-competitive
some mergers worked (usually where vertical integration had taken place first)

New managerial class

As the larger corporations developed, a new class evolved--managers
Ownership and management of corporations becomes separate
Managers work to ensure stability, continuity--to protect their positions
Expertise becomes their key to advancement

Why do Americans accept this new way of doing business?

The new industrial world far different from what most Americans used to handling

brought hardships to many
run smaller, less efficient firms out of business

Americans embraced the new industrial order because

saw it as more promising environment in terms of material well-being
possibilities for economic and social mobility (climbing the ladder of success)

The gospel of wealth and progress

Social darwinism

Darwin had no direct ties to use of his ideas
Darwinism used to buttress the conservative outlook in two ways

it suggested that nature would provide that the best competitors in a competitive situation would win, thus leading to continued improvement ("survival of the fittest" and "struggle for existence")
idea of development of eons suggested that all sound development should be slow and unhurried (without assistance or interference from the government)

Herbert Spencer and Wm. Graham Sumner--leading proponents

Spencer (Britain, 1850s)

argued that a general law of evolution could be formulated
that law argued for a biological law of society--poor were obviously unfit, should be eleminated by nature
government should not interfere with natural process

At Yale, William Graham Sumner became strong advocate of Spencer's theories--popularized Social Darwinism in U.S.

progress of civilization depends upon the selection process, which in turn depends upon unrestricted competition
society is the product of gradual evolution, it cannot be quickly refashioned by changing the laws

Social Darwinism as a tool to promote racism

Rev. Josiah Strong, Our Country (1885)

believed in universal progress, both material and moral, so long as Anglo-Saxon race could be protected
he felt Anglos were threatened by immigrants, Catholics, Mormons, saloons, large cities, and socialists

Theodore Roosevelt--concluded that coming of the whites to the western frontier could not be stopped, and that a racial war to the finish was inevitable

Critics of Social Darwinism

Lester Ward and Dynamic Sociology--challenges Social Darwinism

sharply distinguished between what he called physical (animal) or purposeless evolution and mental (human) evolution--which could be modified by purposeful action
while environment transforms the animal, man transforms the environment
Ward believed unrestricted competition was harmful

it prevented the most fit from surviving
he argued rational economics not only saves resources, but produces superior organisms
pointed to cultivation of fruit trees and cereal grains and the breeding of cattle as examples of improvements

Ward believed education was a leveling instrument--a means of bringing opportunity to humble people and enabling them to use their talents--strong supporter of public schools

Washington Gladden--minister

warned that the weaker classes would unite to attack a competitive system in which they were threatened with annihilation
saw the principle of competition as the law of plants and animals and "brutish" men, not the highest law of civilized society

Why Social Darwinism on rise until 1890s

American society saw its own image in the tooth-and-claw version of natural selection--the rugged individualist
the dominant groups in society were able to dramatize this vision of competition as a thing good in itself

Culture of professionalism and Universities

during late 19th century, the developing middle class developed a culture of professionalism which dominated the habits of thought and action by which most educated Americans organized their behavior--both public and private
Middle-class Americans of late 19th century were a people in motion, seeking success and betterment--they saw their world not as a fixed organic whole, but as a fluid environment open to manipulation according to their needs and values
these people needed a new style of thought which could provide self-discipline and forms of esteem and achievement that fit with broader values of society
these needs were met by developing an outlook (a culture) that saw a profession as an occupation requiring mastery of esoteric skills and embodying an ethic of service to a client's interest
thus, becoming a professional in a given field provided a source of self-esteem and social prestige
Education and the culture of professionalism

the newly developing American universities served and promoted this middle-class professionalism
offered more electives to the traditional "classical" education
began classes in applied skills, especially in scientific areas
began to develop different schools--business, law, medicine, engineering, social work, education, etc.
opened more graduate schools, for advanced training
provided education and skills in professions--key to authority--helpd to set standards for what it meant to be a professional in a particular field
in turn, the middle class looked upon the universities as institutional centers for this cultural process of creating professionalism

Government assistance to business

Tariffs

taxes on foreign goods
raised prices on foreign goods, thus protected American industries from strong competition by outsiders

Subsidies--government grants to businesses

land grants to railroads
Homestead and Morrill Act--designed to help provide land for settlers and colleges, it principally benefitted businessmen, speculators, merchants, lawyers

patent protection
legal system

tort law--especially negligence

fellow-servant rule, which held that an employee could not sue the employer for injuries caused by the negligence of another employee.
Contributory negligence rules also limited the tort liability of businesses--if employee least bit negligent, company's negligence was negated
assumption of risk--person who undertook a dangerous activity (such as riding trains or working in hazardous occupation) assumed the risk of any injury
forseeability--injury caused by negligence must be foreseeable before it could be compensated--RR fire case in N.Y.

employment contracts--enforced strictly to the letter, most often favored employers over employees
Caveat emptor--buyer beware

Gospel of Wealth

Andrew Carnegie

America as land of free and prosperous
reasons for America's success

ethnic character of people--esp. Anglo-Saxons
geography--plentitude of North America
influence of political institutions based on equality of the citizen

Antitrust legislation

Sherman Anti-trust Act

explain a trust
Sponsored by Sen. John Sherman in 1890
outlawed trusts and "any other contracts or combinations in restraint of trade"
Act based on Congress' power to regulate interstate commerce
failed to define its terms clearly
Rockefeller dissolves the Standard Oil Trust and creates a holding company--avoids the Sherman Act

E. Mechanization and the changing status of labor

From workshops to mass production

Typical working days

workshops

work done in small shops by skilled artisans
artisans controlled pace of work and flow of workday (breaks, working conditions, etc.)

Small manufacturing concerns

centralized workers in one place
skilled craftsmen worked in groups, each doing one job (over and over)
skilled workers still controlled pace of work, but lost control over other areas (holidays, drinking on job, etc.)

Mechanized shops

workers still centralized
skilled craftsmen not needed to handle routine operations any more as more sophisticated machines took over those tasks--could be run by unskilled operatives
control of shop-floor now passed to management--skilled workers now did set-up, moved into management, or were troubleshooters

Working conditions

length of workday/workweek

normally a 10-12 hour day, depending on industry
six days a week

Men in the North--anywhere from $3.00/day for highly skilled laborers to $1.25/day for unskilled workers
Pay sufficient for people to survive if they worked full time, year-round
Men in the South--$.75-$1.50/day in the South, depending on skill levels--most jobs called for unskilled workers

sporadic nature of work

seasonal unemployment a norm for workers
few worked year round
economic downswings often meant loss of hours and/or reductions in pay

industrial safety

little concern on part of many employers for industrial safety
workers seldom received more than minimal training on equipment
accidents were common, especially in heavy industries--steel, railroad, mining, and textiles
1913--25,000 fatalities and 700,000 injured severely enough to miss more than 4 weeks work
even minor injuries could become bad, due to lack of proper treatment
diseases common in some industries-- black lung (coal), brown lung (textiles), and white lung (baking) in particular
employers fought against government regulation of safety and health--arguing that these measures would be too expensive

fate of disabled workers

usually no compensation from employers--hazards were a risk borne by employees (their regular wages were seen as taking the risk into account)
no government safety net--workers' comp. and disability payments did not exist
some workers joined fraternal organizations (brotherhoods) which provided minimal coverage in case of disabilities--could not provide much for long-term or death
families and neighbors became the only source of help

Employment of women

Number working

by 1890s, large number of women had entered the workplace
women were entering the factories in large numbers for the first time

Types of work

occupations that employed what were seen as traditional female skills

domestic
teaching
nursing

non-traditional occupations

industrial--garment, shoe, cigar, and cigarette, baking
secretarial

previously dominated by males
now with large numbers needed to handle growing paperwork and new machines, women moved into positions

store clerks

Wages

generally half of what men received
reasons

in jobs seen as unskilled
women seen as temporary, not permanent breadwinners for families

Reactions to women entering workforce in large numbers

some traditional occupations were seen as fitting for women--fit in with notions as being in the proper sphere for "ladies" (nursing and teaching)
other occupations viewed as being unfit for "good" women

Employment of children

Working conditions
Child-Labor laws

Strikes of 1877

Importance of strikes

helped spur organized labor movement
caused many middle-class Americans to view workers as a mob, influenced by outside agitators

Causes

depression of 1870s cuts down on rail traffic
rail lines go through a series of pay cuts to workers
Workers on B & O strike, blocking the railroad

Pittsburgh

heavy violence in Pittsburgh against Penn RR
Railroad calls in Pinkertons to break the strike and protect property
Pinkertons run off by strikers in gun battle

State militias called out in a number of states
Federal government's response

Pres. Rutherford B. Hayes sends in U.S. Army--reason, to protect the U.S. Mail
When shooting stopped, almost 100 people had died

The union movement

Knights of Labor

formed a wide-scale labor union in 1877, amid the turmoil of the railway strikes of that year
Reason for founding K of L

belief that the producer of a good (laborers) deserves the fruits of his or her work (i.e.--labor creates value)
many new workers came from farming background, where farmer works and receives pay for product

Membership

included all wage earners
excluded: gamblers, speculators, lawyers, bankers, doctors, and stockbrokers

Platform

supported greenbacks, government regulation of health and safety, public ownership of railways and telegraphs, equal pay for women, graduated income tax, and worker-owned cooperative manufacturing enterprises
against child and convict labor

worked to influence politics, sought to elect those friendly to labor
Railroad strikes in 1884-85

several locals launched successful wildcat strikes against a few railroads in 1884 (without Powderly's approval)
in 1885, Jay Gould tries to get rid of all K of L supporters working on his Wabash RR
Powderly authorized a strike against the line and ordered all members to refuse to handle Wabash cars
Gould backs down

1886--Success leads to demise of K of L

success of the strike against Wabash caused ranks to swell to over 700,000 members by 1886
number too large for national leadership to control
a number of locals launched unsuccessful strikes without support of national leadership, which left many disillusioned
Haymarket riot and backlash against unionism
Union membership declines to less than 200,000 over next three years

Haymarket Riot

Chicago in May 1886

booming city
meatpacking, railroad, and farming equipment major industries
pro-business atmosphere in government, pro-labor among workers

Events leading to riot

McCormick Harvester plant scene of strike
workers wanted an 8 hour work day
four striking workers shot and killed by police at the plant

May 4, protest rally at
Haymarket Square

someone throws a bomb into crowd, killing 7 policemen
police return fire, killing 4 protestors
8 labor activists arrested for murder

Trial and aftermath

trial

no evidence to link 8 arrested to bombing
all were convicted

4 executed, one commits suicide
Gov. John Altgeld pardons remaining 3 in 1893
backlash against labor--organizers seen by middle and upper class as being in league with anarchists

American Federation of Labor

founded in 1886
Reasons for founding A F of L

belief in trade unionism--use the bargaining power of skilled workers

Samuel Gompers

English immigrant, started in cigar-making trade
believed that large-scale industrial organization required large-scale labor organization
work through individual craft guilds for collective bargaining

Membership

limited to members of craft guilds
unskilled laborers not welcome
women and blacks excluded
new immigrants discouraged from joining
membership remained limited until after 1900, when number grew to nearly 1.5 million

Activities

sought to control shop floor--working conditions
worked primarily through attempts at collective bargaining
avoided strikes
stayed out of politics until 1910s, did not trust politicians

Pullman Strike and American Railway Union (1893)

Pullman company policies -- company town

Immigrants, blacks, and the labor movement

Excluded by most labor groups
Accepted by IWW and K of L

Problems of coping outside of labor unions

The Birth of Modern America
Social and Cultural Developments

I. The Fame and Shame of the Cities, 1877-1920

The impact of the new urban environment
Transportation and Industrial Growth in the Modern City

shape of the city during the early 19th century
New shape of the city
Formation of distinct districts--residential, industrial, business
Mechanization of mass transportation

Horse trolleys, omnibusses, and cable cars
Electric trolleys
Elevated trains and subways

Beginnings of urban sprawl

. Middle to upper class phenomenon
. Development of suburbs
Business follows consumers

Urban-industrial development

Cities as entrepots
Centers of communication, transportation
Provide labor for factories
Impact of industrialization

Peopling the Cities: Migrants and immigrants

How cities grew

Expansion of borders
Natural increase of native pop.
Migration

Major waves of migration and immigration

Rural to urban migration
Black migration (small in comparison to what will come later)
Immigration as part of world trend
The new immigration

Where from
Numbers
Where they went
American reactions to immigrants

Immigrant cultures

Attempts to transplant communities from Old World
Modification of old attitudes and customs
Younger generations adapt
Clash between old and young generations
Influence on religion

Predominance of Protestant religions before newcomers
Influx of Catholics and Jews
Attempts to convert newcomers

Black migration to the cities

Movement begins during 1880s
Flood of migration during World War I era

Living and working conditions found in the cities

Living conditions in the inner city

Housing problems

Description of tenements
Life in the tenements
Housing reform

City based safety codes
Scientific improvements
Jacob Riis and his photography -- show some photos

Urban poverty

Seasonal nature of employment during the period
Determining which poor to help
Beginnings of the belief that environment may have something to do with poverty

Crime and violence

Growth of violence
Who caused the violence?
Image of America as a violent society
Role of the police

Enforcing the law -- selectively
Corruption
Weakness of reform efforts

Promises of mobility

Occupational mobility

Opportunities from industrial expansion
Horatio Alger stories -- Andrew Carnegie
Rates of upward mobility -- differences between communities
Acquisition of property

Residential mobility

People most likely to move
Rates of success in upward mobility

Ethnic neighborhoods and ghettos

Impact of migration on neighborhoods
Definition of ghetto (also barrio)
Effects of life in the ghetto
Chances for upward mobility

The rise of urban boss politics

Political machines

Arise out of chaos of the cities
Evolution of the political bosses
How machine system worked
Techniques of bossism

Different styles
Use of patronage
Knowledge of constituents needs and wants

Problems of boss system

Civic reform

Structural reforms in government
City manager system of government
Battles with the political machine

Social reform

Housing reforms
Educational reforms
Settlement house movement -- Jane Addams and Hull House
Beautification campaigns

Fredrick Law Olmsted and parks
City Beautiful movement

Failures
Engineering reforms

Basic utilities -- sanitation (sewage and garbage), water, and electricity
role of engineers as new urban professionals

The legacy of urbanism

Cultural pluralism
Cultural-political alignments

II. Everyday Life and Culture, 1877-1920

Overview

American lifestyles at beginning of period
Movement outside the home
Standards of living

Rising personal income -- increases for all classes
Cost of living

Rose faster than incomes
How families coped (or failed to cope)
Sending new family members into workforce (women and children)
Supplements to family income

Taking in boarders
Second jobs

Higher life expectancy -- advances in medical care

The quest for convenience -- Mechanization takes command

Processed and preserved foods

Tin cans
Refrigeration
Shipping and marketing systems

Ready-made clothing

Rise of garment industry
Concern with style becomes prevalent

Department and chain stores

Rise of department in the cities
The growth of chain stores -- A & P

Family life

Family and household structures

Household vs. Family
Nuclear vs. Extended
Causes for changes in family patterns

Declining birthrates

Acceleration of decline
Reasons for decline

Impact on families

Boarding

Primarily urban phenomenon
Advantages and disadvantages to family and boarder

Importance of kinship

Reliance on kin
Frictions caused by kinship obligations
Stages of life

Impact of demographic and social changes

Rise of schools and importance of education in family life
The new leisure and mass culture

Increase in leisure time

Reduction of work weeks
Impact of mechanization

Amusements as organized activity

Baseball

Growth of baseball
Socializing impact of baseball (observance of rules, social interaction, competition)

Croquet, cycling, and football
Circuses
Theatre

Popular drama and musical comedy
Vaudeville

Blacks and immigrants in vaudeville

Movies

Edison and moving pictures
D.W. Griffith and Birth of a Nation

Homogenizing influence of popular entertainments
The transformation of mass communications

Advertising

Purpose is to create demand for a product
Legal protection of advertising
Methods and vehicles for advertising

Yellow journalism

Pulitzer and the World, Hearst and the Journal
Methods -- Muckraking, sensationalism, tear-jerkers
Other forms of journalism

RHS US History

Thursday, January 19, 2012

study guide midterms